Unearthing History: Evolution and Distribution of American Indigenous Schools in the U.S.
The American Indian assimilation era's enforced assimilation of Indigenous children caused profound physical, cultural, and spiritual harm, leading to historical trauma, cultural genocide, and ongoing disparities in Indigenous communities. This period, marked by a variety of educational institutions beyond just 'boarding schools,' played a significant yet often overlooked role in shaping Indigenous experiences and identities. Understanding the full spectrum of these assimilation facilities is essential to grasp the enduring impact of this historical trauma on Indigenous communities. The study, utilizing a dataset of 494 schools gathered through archival research, focused on mapping and visualizing the prevalence, distribution, and geographical spread of day schools from 1800 to 2023. Four major school types emerged from the dataset: exclusively boarding, exclusively day, exclusively boarding and day, and exclusively transition schools (alternated between boarding and day schools separately). Findings reveal that out of the 494 schools, 302 were boarding schools, 103 combined boarding and day schools, 54 were transition schools, and 15 operated solely as day schools. The largest concentrations were in Oklahoma, Arizona, and New Mexico. The first school opened in 1801, and the peak operational year occurred in 1908, with 265 assimilation schools in operation; currently, 109 schools remain operational. Moreover, fourteen schools admitted non-Indigenous children, including Black, White, Latino, and adults, providing insight into the schools' operational and demographic diversity previously unexplored. These findings provide a nuanced understanding of the schools' operational spread, prevalence, and demographic diversity, contributing to a broader discussion of their historical and ongoing impact on Indigenous communities.